Wednesday, February 2, 2011

                    1. Title
                        LATEST DEVELOPMENTS IN COMPUTER HARDWARE
                                                                    BY
                                                         
                                                              VAISAKHAN.S
                   2. Introduction   

                                             Computer hardware refers to the physical parts of a computer and related devices. Internal hardware devices include motherboard, hard drives, and RAM. External hardware devices include monitors, keyboard, mouse, printers, and scanners.
         The internal hardware parts of a computer are often referred to as components, while external hardware devices are usually called peripherals. Together, they all fall under the category of computer hardware, software, on the other hand, consists of the programs and applications that run on computers. Because software runs on computer hardware, software programs often have system requirements that list the minimum hardware required  for the software to run.
   The most vital component of a computer is the microprocessor. It is in this field that a battle of developing latest technologies in computer hardware takes place. The pace of development of microprocessor increases as the competition between the major processor chip manufacturing companies, Intel and AMD, intensifies. Both the companies are engaging in a neck and neck competition and continuously outdo each other in introducing new technologies.
In the field of computer peripherals, the latest technology in computer hardware is in developing yet another version of wireless mouse and keyboard. The concept of wireless mouse and keyboard is about a decade old. But the development of these items is still a work in progress. The latest products of wireless mouse and keyboard are said to be highly durable and error free.
Some of the developments in the latest technology in computer hardware are gearing up for changing the present concept of desktop and laptop computers. With new developments making possible the convergence of mobile phone technology and computers, a new breed of fully functional palm-top computers are going to be introduced in near future. With touch screen monitors and without the need for a mouse, these gadgets are likely to become the next big leap in the constantly leaping technological development field.
.                  3. Analysis and Interpretation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
                                                                                                                                               
This following list represents a basic set of hardware found in most PCs.  
    • PC Case
    • Motherboard
    • Power supply
    • Monitors (CRT and LCD)
    • Other removable media
    • Printer
    • Scanner
    • Modem
    • Keyboard
    • Mouse
    • Audio
    • Cables & Wires

PC Case


The PC case is a thin sheet metal enclosure that houses the motherboard, power supply and various drives (HDD, FDD, CD, and DVD).
  • Cases are offered in two styles, desktop and tower. Today the tower type is predominant. It stands upright and is much taller than it is wide. It is usually placed on the floor next to, or under a desk. Tower cases are offered in two basic sizes, one that can fit ATX (12" wide) motherboards and one that can accommodate ATX mini (8.5" wide) motherboards. The number of drive bays offered also varies depending on manufacturer.
  • The motherboard and power supply mount to the floor at the rear of the case. The drives (hard, floppy and CD/DVD) mount in enclosures called drive bays at the front of the case.
Motherboard
The motherboard is the main circuit board in a PC. It contains all the circuits and components that run the PC.

Major Components found on the motherboard are:
CPU - It is the heart of every PC. All scheduling, computation and control occurs here. The CPU is the 'brain' of the computer. Modern processors are designed by two distinct companies: Intel and Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). Intel processors are most commonly used in prefabricated computer systems .The company focuses on two different lines of processors: the Pentium and the Celeron. Pentium processors are the larger microchip style that works on most desktop and some laptops. They can handle high-demand processing, such as that found in 3D gaming, video editing and other multimedia-intense applications. Celeron processors are more compact models with the ability to run a basic computer efficiently and cost-effectively.
AMD's lines of computer processors can be found in prefabricated models, however, are most commonplace with home-built systems or specially designed machines. AMD was the first to build a 64-bit processor, capable of high-end applications use with graphic intensive operations. The previous industry standard had been 32-bit processing. Some AMD processor offer built-in virus protection.

'''Dual Core''':-The Intel designation for dual core are "Pentium D", "Core Duo" and "Core 2 Duo" while AMD has its "X2" series and "FX-6x".
'''Hyper Threading'''
Normally the processor carries out one task and then proceeds onto the next task. But with Hyper Threading the processor continually switches in-between each task as if to do them at the same time.
  • BIOS - Basic Input Output System is a non-volatile memory that contains configuration information about the PC. It contains all the code required for the CPU to communicate with the keyboard, mouse video display, disk drives and communications devices.

    When a PC is powered on it uses the BIOS 'boot code' to set up many required functions that bring the PC to a point where it is ready to work.
  • RTC - the Real Time Clock chip keeps date, day and time in a 24 hour format just like your watch. The PC uses this clock to 'time stamp' files as they are created and modified. When you print a file it time stamps the pages as they are printed.
  • Chip Set - these are large chip(s) that integrate many functions that used to be found in separate smaller chips on the motherboard. They save space and cost. The chip set mediates communication between the CPU and the other components of the system, including main memory
  • RAM (Random Access Memory) stores resident part of the current running OS (OS core and so on) and all running processes (applications parts, using CPU or input/output (I/O) channels or waiting for CPU or I/O channels).
  • Power supply unit (PSU) converts alternating current (AC) electric power to low-voltage DC power for the internal components of the computer. Some power supplies have a switch to change between 230 V and 115 V. Other models have automatic sensors that switch input voltage automatically, or are able to accept any voltage between those limits. Power supply units used in computers are nearly always switch mode power supplies(SMPS) .The SMPS provides regulated direct current power at the several voltages required by the motherboard and accessories such as disk drives and cooling fans
Hard Disk Drive
  • The HDD installs in one of the 3-1/2 inch internal drive bays in the PC. It is secured by machine screws.
  • It is powered by a 4 conductor cable coming from the power supply.
  • Data to and from the motherboard is carried on a 40-pin IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) cable.
  • Data is stored magnetically on multiple rigid disks that are stacked up like pancakes. Small arms with magnetic pickups move rapidly back and forth across the top and bottom surface of each disk in the drive. The sensors float just a few microns above the rotating disk surface and can read and write data at very high rates.
  • Most commercially available hard drives rotate at 5400 or 7200 RPM (revolutions per minute) which translates to 90 or 120 revolutions per second respectively. The data transfer rate from the drive to the motherboard is 33 Mbytes/second in bursts. Newer drives are capable of higher speeds up to 66 Mbytes/sec. To use this faster drive, the PC must have an ATA/66 interface that is capable of keeping up with it.
Floppy Disk Drive
  • The FDD installs in one of the external drive bays at the front of the PC case and is secured by machine screws. External means you can access the drive from the outside.
  • It is powered by a cable with a 4-pin connector that comes from the power supply.
  • It transfers data to and from the motherboard by means of a 34 pin ribbon cable.
  • It stores data magnetically on a removable floppy disk. A pickup arm in the drive floats above the disk surface. The arm moves rapidly back and forth across the disk surface as a small magnetic sensor at the end of the arm reads and writes data on the rotating disk surface.
  • Floppy disks hold 1.44 Mbytes, which at one time was a large amount of data. Today many programs and files are much larger than this. In spite of being surpassed in size by CD and DVD, floppy drives are still found on many newer PCs.
Compact Disc Drive
  • The CDD installs in one of the external 5-1/4 inch drive bays in the front of the PC case. It is secured by machine screws. Some manufacturers offer special rail-like systems that mount on the CDD. These allow the drive to be removed from the PC without having to remove any screws.
  • Data is stored optically on the surface of the disk. A laser attached to an arm that moves back and forth across near the disk surface and sends light toward the disk surface which is coated with of a thin layer of aluminum.
  • Smooth areas called lands reflect the light back to a photo diode located near the laser. The reflected light is read as a 1. Areas called pits are where the aluminum has been removed. When the laser light hits these, it is scattered and very little is picked up by the photo diode. The absence of light is read as a 0.
  • CDD have become the predominant removable storage media for PCs and can store 700 Mbytes of data.
  • A 4-pin cable from the power supply plugs into the CDD and provides power to it.
  • Data to and from the motherboard is carried on a 40-pin IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) cable.
  • There are two types of Compact Disk drives available for PCs.
    1. CD-ROM (read only memory) is the older type. As the title implies it can only read CDs. It can read any standard CD and most CD-R type disks. It may be able to read some types of CD-RW disks too
    2. CD-RW (Rewritable) units can read and write CD-R and CD-    RW type disks. It can also read standard CD type disks.
Digital Video Disk drive
  1. DVD also known as the Digital Versatile Disk drive installs in one of the external 5 1/4 inch drive bays in the PC. It is secured by machine screws. Some manufacturers offer special rail-like systems that mount on the DVD. These allow the drive to be removed from the PC without having to remove screws.
  2. It is designed to optically access data stored on a DVD. A laser moves back and forth near the disk surface and accesses data at a very fast rate.
  3. A 4-pin cable from the power supply plugs into the CDD and provides power to it.
  4. Data between the DVD drive and the motherboard is carried on a 40-pin IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) cable.
  5. There are two types of DVD drives that typically go into PCs.
    • DVD-ROM (Read Only Memory) can read DVDs and CDs
    • DVD-RAM (Random Access Memory) units can read and write DVDs. They can also read CDs
  6. A standard DVD stores up to 4.7 Bytes on one side of the disk. Digitally formatted movies can be stored on a standard DVD in MPEG-2 format.
Monitor
CRT Monitors
  • Up until recently, CRTs (Cathode Ray Tubes) were the only type of displays for use with desktop PCs. They are relatively big (14" to 16" deep) and heavy (over 15 lbs).
  • They are available in screen sizes from 14" to 21". They are powered by standard 120Vac wall power.
  • Data is transferred to the display on a cable with a 15-pin D-shell connector that plugs into a connector on the video card which in turn plugs into one of the PC's expansion slots.

LCD Monitors
  • Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) technology has been used in laptops for some time. It has recently been made commercially available as monitors for desktop PCs.
  • LCDs have no electron gun and are therefore not very deep like CRTs. The text and images you see are created by a back light behind the panel, that shines through pixels (picture elements)...
  • Desk top LCD displays are powered by standard 120Vac wall power.
  • Data is transferred to the display on a cable with a 15-pin connector that plugs into a mating connector on the video card seated in an expansion slot in the PC.

Keyboard
  • The keyboard was the first input device developed for the PC.
  • The standard keyboard layout provides 104 keys organized as four groups:
    • alphanumeric keys (A-Z, 0-9)
    • Location keys (home, end etc.)
    • numeric keypad
    • function keys (F1-F12)
  • In addition to the standard keys, some keyboards offer functions such as volume control for speakers, web browser functions and power management.
  • Data is transferred to the PC over a short cable with a circular 6-pin Mini-din connector that plugs into the back of the motherboard.
  • There are wireless keyboards that communicate with a pod that is plugged into the keyboard port. Radio Frequency (RF) or Infrared (IR) technology is used to communicate between the keyboard and the receiver pod, which plugs into the PC.
Mouse
The mouse is the most common 'pointing device' used in PCs. Every mouse has two buttons and most have one or two scroll wheels.
  • By default the left button is used to select items. The right button is assigned as a context or alternate menu. A single wheel is normally set to scroll up and down on the active page. If a second wheel is present, it is usually assigned to scroll left and right on the page.
  • Data is transferred to the PC over a short cable with a circular 6-pin Mini-din connector that plugs into the back of the motherboard.
  • Some versions of the mouse are wireless. They communicate with a receiver pod that is plugs into the mouse port. Radio Frequency (RF) or Infrared (IR) technology is used for communication between the mouse and the pod there are two designs used in a mouse for detecting motion:

    Track ball
    This type of mouse uses a rolling (track) ball. As the mouse moves the ball rolls. The rolling motion is converted electronically into matching movements of the mouse pointer that moves across your video display.
    The track ball mouse is rapidly becoming another casualty of rapidly changing technology. The optical mouse has pretty much replaced it. The track ball mouse is already becoming a thing of the past.

    Optical
    This mouse uses an Infrared transmitter/receiver pair to optically detect the motion of the mouse. It has a number of advantages over the track ball mouse:
  • No mouse pad is required.
  • Can work on any flat surface
Other removable media

Flash memory

Some common types of Flash memory card are Compact Flash, Secure Digital (SD), and XD. There are other formats which have fallen into deprecation, such as Smart media and Multimedia Card (MMC).
Flash memory is faster than magnetic media and much more rugged. The only reason Flash hasn't replaced hard drives is that Flash memory is much more expensive per gigabyte than hard drives.

(Edit) USB Flash drive

Memory sticks or flash drives are solid-state NAND flash chips packaged to provide additional memory storage. These drives are quickly replacing floppy disks as a means of transferring data from one PC to another in the absence of a network.
    Printer
The most common types of printers today are
  • Laser printer: Prints very crisp text, but cheaper models can only print in black and white. Good for places like offices where high printing speed is needed.
  • Color inkjet printer: Prints photos and other images in color (using 4 colors of ink -- cyan, magenta, yellow, and black), but the text they print is often not as crisp as a laser printer.
The average printer of the early 1990s would connect to a computer through its parallel port. To connect it to the computer via parallel port, one would have to screw it into the port. Today many printers are connected through USB. This is because it is easier to connect and remove through a simple plug and play system. It also allows for faster transfer speeds than parallel
Scanner
Sceneries a device for digitizing paper documents into images that may be manipulated by a computer. The two main classes of scanner are:
  • hand-held scanners (in which the user manually drags a small scanning head over the document), and
  • flat-bed scanners (which are designed to accommodate a whole sheet of paper, which is then examined by a motorised scanning head).
If the original document contained text, Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software may be used to reconstruct the text of the document from the scanned images.
Modem
A contraction of "Modulator - demodulator", a modem allows a computer to communicate over an analogue medium (most commonly a telephone line). The modem encodes digital signals from the computer as analogue signals suitable for transmission (modulation) and decodes digital data from a modulated analogue signal (demodulation). Using modems two computers may communicate over a telephone line, with the data passed between them being represented as sound.
Modems are usually involved with dial-up internet services. As broadband catches on, they are falling into disuse. However, the devices used to connect to broadband connections are also called modems, specifically DSL Modems or Cable Modems.
Audio
  • Speakers and headphones are the primary audio output devices for a PC. Some monitors have speakers built into their sides. Other speakers are free standing. Passive speakers plug into and are powered directly from the output signal provided by the 'speaker out' port on the sound card. Active speakers amplify the sound signal from the sound card using battery or rectified AC house power.
Cables and Wires
  • Although these are not the most sophisticated part of the system, they are just as important as any other component. All the components in a PC are connected together and to power with wires and cables.
                                                                                                     
                      4. Conclusion
                                   The above seminar regarding the topic of Latest Developments in Computer Hardware, we can understand a clear picture about hardware. Hardware refers to all physical and intangible things like machines, devices and other equipments connected with computers that actually process data. It is used to perform the functions like data preparation, input of data, control, computation storage and output.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
                    5. References
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